EMPIRICISM
Empiricism covers a range of views prioritizing experience as the primary source of knowledge. During the Early Modern Period, this view was expounded by the so-called British Empiricists—Locke, Berkeley, and…
RATIONALISM
Rationalism designates a variety of philosophical schools maintaining that reason, as opposed to empirical investigation, is the most important method…
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INTUITIONISM
INTUITIONISM
One of the most familiar non-classical logics is intuitionism, which, in simple terms, is based upon the rejection of the law of excluded middle: (P ∨ ¬P). There are both…
PHENOMENOLOGY
PHENOMENOLOGY
As originally developed by Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), phenomenology seeks to provide a detailed description of the way in which things are presented to us—that is to say, phenomena —in an…
PYTHAGOREANISM
PYTHAGOREANISM
Based on the teachings of Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BC) and the school he established inCroton in southern Italy, we may conclude that, in many ways, Pythagoreanism was more ofa mystery…
THE ESSAY OF REFUTATION
THE ESSAY OF REFUTATION
The essay of refutation takes the position “I disagree.” Its objective is to persuade the reader that the argument of another is false, flawed, unlikely, implausible, or in some other…
MODAL LOGIC
MODAL LOGIC
A common extension to the standard formal languages outlined above is to introduce the technical machinery required to evaluate natural language arguments containing modal terminology (that is, talk of possibility…
CRITICAL THINKING AND LOGIC TEXTBOOKS
CRITICAL THINKING AND LOGIC TEXTBOOKS
Textbooks on critical thinking and logic.
PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
Many religions distinguish between truths accessible through reason (natural theology), and truths accessible through faith (revealed theology). Both natural and revealed theology raise interesting philosophical questions about these two sources…
WRITING IS CENTRAL TO PHILOSOPHY
WRITING IS CENTRAL TO PHILOSOPHY
For the great majority of us, writing is instrumental to thinking. Since it is reasonable to describe philosophy as the application of disciplined thought to a variety of topics, issues,…
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy embraces the most ambitious field of inquiry—the universe, including the self and everything both physical and metaphysical. It is impossible to list all the branches of philosophy, which are…
POST-KANTIAN PHILOSOPHY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
POST-KANTIAN PHILOSOPHY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
Kant’s philosophy continued to dominate throughout the nineteenth century, although there were increasing concerns about the overall coherence of his system; in particular, there was doubt as to whether the…
THE PERSONAL ESSAY
THE PERSONAL ESSAY
The personal essay is a self-reflective search for meaning. Unlike most philosophical writing, it is not argumentative. Instead, it is exploratory and speculative, often even somewhat confessional. It is typically…
HERMENEUTICS
HERMENEUTICS
Originally applied to scriptural exegesis (interpretation), hermeneutics is more generally the theory and method of all “textual” interpretation. In the modern context, this refers to both verbal and non-verbal “texts”…
ARISTOTLE
ARISTOTLE
Aristotle (384–322 BC) was born in Stagira but moved to Athens as a young man to study at Plato’s Academy. Following Plato’s death, Aristotle traveled, became tutor to Alexander the…
HIGHER-ORDER LOGICS
HIGHER-ORDER LOGICS
The language sketched above is better referred to as first-order predicate calculus, as the language only quantifies over (first-order) individuals. A stronger language, second-order predicate calculus, can therefore be constructed…
SCHOLASTICISM
A general term for those philosophers influenced by the medieval rediscovery of classic texts, Scholasticism is broadly characterized by an…
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Discipline Is Destiny: The Power of Self-Control (The Stoic Virtues Series)
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Stillness Is the Key
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Right Thing, Right Now: Justice in an Unjust World (The Stoic Virtues Series)
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How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius
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Letters from a Stoic: Penguin Classics
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Why There Is No God: Simple Responses to 20 Common Arguments for the Existence of God
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On Human Nature
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Leviathan
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Doubt: A History: The Great Doubters and Their Legacy of Innovation from Socrates and Jesus to Thomas Jefferson and Emily Dickinson
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The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More-Than-Human World
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Marie Kondo’s Kurashi at Home: How to Organize Your Space and Achieve Your Ideal Life (The Life Changing Magic of Tidying Up)
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Living Like a Stoic: Cultivating Wisdom, Emotional Resilience, Positivity, Confidence, Calmness, and Meditations for Perseverance in Today’s Modern Life
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The Last Days of Socrates: Euthyphro; Apology; Crito; Phaedo (Penguin Classics)
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Practicing the Power of Now: Essential Teachings, Meditations, And Exercises From the Power of Now (Easyread Large)
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Suffering-Focused Ethics: Defense and Implications
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Song of Circe & On the Composition of Images: Two Books of the Art of Memory (Collected Works of Giordano Bruno)
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The Will to Power
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The Cat Who Taught Zen
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Standing at the Edge: Finding Freedom Where Fear and Courage Meet
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The Symposium (Penguin Classics)
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The Metaphysics of Evolution: Evolutionary Theory in Light of First Principles
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The Atomos Blog
Philosophy of Law: An Introduction
Philosophy of Law: An Introduction
Philosophy of Law: An Introduction
Philosophy of Law: An Introduction
Philosophy of Science: An Introduction
Philosophy of Science: An Introduction
Aesthetics: An Introduction
Aesthetics: An Introduction
Epistemology: An Introduction
Epistemology: An Introduction
Ethics: An Introduction
Ethics: An Introduction
Logic: An Introduction
Logic: An Introduction
Metaphysics: An Introduction
Metaphysics: An Introduction
Philosophy of History: An Introduction
Philosophy of History: An Introduction
Philosophy of Language: An Introduction
Philosophy of Language: An Introduction
Philosophy of Mind: An Introduction
Philosophy of Mind: An Introduction
Philosophy of Technology: An Introduction
Philosophy of Technology: An Introduction
Political and Social Philosophy: An Introduction
Political and Social Philosophy: An Introduction
Environmental Philosophy: An Introduction
Environmental Philosophy: An Introduction
Existentialism and Phenomenology: An Introduction
Existentialism and Phenomenology: An Introduction
Feminist Philosophy: An Introduction
Feminist Philosophy: An Introduction
Philosophy of Mind: An Introduction
Philosophy of Mind: An Introduction
Terms & Concepts
Truth table
A method of demonstrating how a statement’s truth value is built up from an atomic or simple sentence and the operation of the (main) connective. https://youtube.com/shorts/Qq98IsjJpG4?feature=share
Analytic-synthetic distinction
An analytic statement is true in virtue of the meaning of its terms (for instance, “all bachelors are men”) while a synthetic statement is true based on how its meaning…
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