Rooted in ancient Chinese religious, philosophical, and political traditions, Confucianism emerged as body of philosophical thought through the teachings of Confucius, who saw himself not as an original philosopher, but as a faithful transmitter of Shang (ca. 1600-1046 BC) and Zhou (ca. 1046-256 BC) theology and ethics.
Like any complex and nuanced theological or philosophical body of thought, Confucianism defies easy characterization. Its essential tenets are these:
An emphasis on the received wisdom of revered teachers of the past. Discovery and innovation are not Confucian values. Rather, the cornerstones of the Confucian approach are precedent and universality, which are to be applied to create selfimprovement
Adherence to two basic doctrines: Zhong, faithfulness to self and humanity, and Shu, “cherish the heart as if it were your owner.” Social order is created not by laws but by morality. Laws seek to maintain order through external punishment, whereas morality maintains order through inner shame. Look to the precedents and wisdom of the past to guide benevolence, moderation and harmony with nature, filial piety, and the “rectification of names”—the recognition of the nature of things by naming them correctly. In contrast to Taoism, which seeks the natural way, Confucianism seeks the social way.
Confucius was born on September 28, 551 BC in Zou, in the state of Lu (present-day Shandong, China), the son of a local garrison commander, Kong He. Kong died when the boy was just three years old, leaving him to be raised in poverty by his mother, Yan Zhengzai. Confucius had the early education suited to commoners, though he had been born into a class intermediate between the common folk and the aristocracy. He came of age during a period of intense political and ideological ferment and achieved some political influence through his teachings, which were highly regarded.
About 497 BC, Confucius left a ministerial position with the ducal court of the state of Lu and commenced a series of journeys through northeast and central China, visiting the courts of Wey, Song, Zheng, Cao, Chu, Qi, Chen, and Cai. In each, he offered counsel based on his beliefs concerning political reform. He was heard but was unable to persuade any of the rulers to implement his principles.
Confucius returned to Lu in his sixty-eighth year at the behest of Chief Minister Ji Kangzi. He taught seventy-two or seventy-seven disciples in the “old wisdom,” drawing on texts known as the Five Classics. At the same time, he often acted as an official advisor on matters of governance and justice. He died in 479 BC, at the age of 71 or 72.
Confucius’ disciples were faithful in disseminating their master’s teachings, which they digested into a set of rules and practices called the Analects. Zisi, the philosopher’s grandson, continued to conduct his philosophical school, whose students included many who served in the royal courts in China. This established Confucianism widely.
Two of the most important followers of Confucianism, Mencius and Xun Zi, wrote important versions of the master’s teachings, but approached them so differently from one another that it is difficult to assess their purity. Mencius (who flourished in the fourth century BC) emphasized the goodness of humanity as the basis of intuitional ethics. Xun Zi (third century BC) focused on the more materialistic and pragmatic dimensions of Confucian thought. In his version, morality was deliberately imposed on society through reverence for tradition and strict training. The works of Mencius and Xun Zi were eventually assembled with the Analects to represent the legacy of Confucianism.
Through time and the reigns of different dynasties, Confucianism was repeatedly adapted, modified, and distorted to suit changing contexts. Knowledge of the ancient philosopher first reached the West in the sixteenth century when Jesuit missionaries translated the Confucian texts into European languages. Such Confucian movements as New Confucianism surfaced in the twentieth century and influenced Mao Zedong other revolutionaries, but the philosopher fell out of favor during Mao’s Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). As a body of political philosophy, Confucianism was increasingly denounced for its adherence to tradition, its close-mindedness, and a general resistance to modernization. Nevertheless, Confucius and his thought remain of great interest to contemporary philosophers and scholars, in such Asian nations as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, as well as in the West.
